Since the establishment of the International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90), much progress has been made in the development of radiometers and blackbody sources. Cryogenic electrical-substitution radiometry is widely used in detector and radiometer calibrations, and stable, high-temperature metal–carbon eutectic blackbodies are under development. Radiation thermometers can be calibrated for absolute radiance responsivity, and blackbody temperatures determined from the amount of optical power without the use of any fixed points to directly measure thermodynamic temperatures. These thermodynamic temperatures can be measured with lower final uncertainties than the ITS-90 derived temperatures, and these developments will directly impact future international temperature scales.
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